Viz také:
The work of Lu darwinoptera eggs at the beginning of the year (Lu et al. 2011) I will not have returned, but for the fact that a lot of it has published a new Darren Naish on his blog Tetrapoda Zoology. Darren your articles into thematic groups a series of clear-cut, but these are often stretched into a wide range. This was the case here as so often referenced series about the oddity of bird wings (the first two parts in April 2009, Part 3, June 2010). Not surprisingly, the second part of the article published on darwinopterovi to 5 May. This article draws primarily from it, I try but that it was not plagiarism - which is only possible, look to supplement the original study, which (unlike her) freely available.
Samotný fakt, že pterosauří vejce jsou jiná, než bychom čekali, nicméně není až tolik zajímavý. Hodí se podotknout, že proti výrokům typu "mají to dva žijící taxony, takže to měly i všechny vymřelé taxony stojící na stromku mezi nimi" (které formalizoval Witmer [1995] method called "Extant Phylogenetic Bracket" or EPB) are beginning to protest - Varicchio (2011) for example showed that in the very near field (the reproductive biology of dinosaurs) may disagree with what really known from the fossil record. Leathery eggs of pterosaurs, but have interesting implications. Above them, the parents probably could not fit - soft, thin and pliable shell could not stand it (Darren in support of this contention cites the work Grellet-Tinner et al. 2007, I would remind the same period one abstract from the symposium Flugsaurier [Deeming & Unwin 2007]). Although D. Naish notes that living Sauropsida type scinků snakes or have found a way to be in physical contact with egg, crushed without him, but he was not fit for pterosaurs. The only way is to keep warm, it is likely to dig into the ground. It would also - provided that the substrate was slightly damp, like decaying vegetation - solve problems with fumes, which are eggs with a soft, permeable shell typical. While the hypothesis
zahrabávaných eggs of pterosaurs is now widely accepted and supported themselves by Lu et al. (2011), there is less certainty about whether the parents guard, and retain the full mercy of fate. Again, we rely on the EPB, which has but one where pterosaurs by incorrect prediction (the hard shell). Recently, moreover, growing evidence that even the dinosaurs - including wild birds, and troodontidy oviraptorosaury who they seem, in all material respects resembled - with fledglings again not so hot (Varicchio 2011). On the question of whether the parents supervising the egg, directly connected to others: the young altriciální pterosaurs, ie. hatched at a relatively early stage of ontogenesis and was dependent on their parents (in birds for the same uses the term "nidikolní"), or was prekociální (nidifugní) and knew how to take care of themselves immediately after hatching? It seems that the truth was far closer to the second possibility (see, eg, Unwin 2005). Pterosaurs we can even be described as "superprekociální, presumably because were able to fly and hunt for food as soon as they got from the egg. D. Naish shows that such a view is quite well-founded by limiting the phylogenetic (EP back in action): the same is true for turtles, scaly, crocodiles and even some birds, especially tabonovitých ( Aves: Neognathae : Galliformes). Naish speculated that pterosaurs could be a typical r-strategists, who are characterized by rapid proliferation, short life cycle, large numbers of offspring and their high mortality. Author notes that without better knowledge of clutch size is just likely estimate, with which they agree and Deeming & Unwin (2007).
much better fossil record than mere eggs have juvenile pterosaurs, who worked at least for some taxa a decent portion of the population. D. Naish here quotes Unwin (2005), under which these young, independent individuals acted as another ecological "species" than their parents - lived in different environments and fed on different food. Not only that. Not even conceivable that during his life could be pterosaur occupy as many as five highly distinct ecological niches. This could explain why we do not know any pterosaurs humming birds, taxa with very small physical dimensions: their niche already occupied by juveniles of larger taxa. (Just out of curiosity: the smallest known specimen of pterosaur, under the taxon Nemicolopterus crypticus , had a margin of around 25 cm and still not fully grown [Wang et al. 2008].) According to the spreader bar, it is likely that dinosaurs neptačí and hurt the birds that were similar. Speculation also said that pterosaurs chicks could be common in a similar way, as it seems to be evidence of dinosaurs.
Naishova second part of the article made me happy: Darren it deals with a topic about which I myself with the original discovery speculated, without knowing that he gave the authors themselves Lu et al. (2011). This is specifically related to the reproductive strategies of endothermy or "Warm-blooded" pterosaurs. While I'm on the path of speculation about how pterosauřím metabolism associated with a low degree of care for young, Lu et al. (2011) and D. Naish pointed out that non-compliance with homeotermickou endothermy * may be the very fact that the eggs were buried and the embryo is developed at ambient temperature. On the other hand, wild birds do the same thing and telling us nothing about how the heat gain and maintain the adults - just how do embryos develop in eggs .*
Naish the article says, he tried to write Science, which published the original study, but that his article was rejected because it attacked the author of only one sentence in which Lü et al. termofyziologii speculated about pterosaurs. His response included a comparison of the pterosaurs superprekociálními birds, namely the aforementioned tabonovitými. At least he wrote a blog that he does not appear that the proportion of female weight (110-220 g) ** and eggs, in which it was found (about 6 grams), rather nearer pterosaurs than for squamous living birds. First, water seepage through the porous shell leathery egg weight increased as well as still 5 grams (thus the problem disappeared), both values \u200b\u200bcharacteristic scaly found also in some birds (as the graph of Lu et al. 2011, which I stole from Tetrapoda Zoology and reprinted below this paragraph):
In other studies, the title promises (I will just have to learn how to do it properly is great ...), Palmer (2011 ) and refers to this time purely biomechanics. If the past two years were the signs of war about whether pterosaurs with the largest wingspan of over 10 meters could still fly (Sato et al. 2009, Henderson 2010, Witton & Habib 2010; see the blog here and here) now comes with a Palmer Finally some sort of compromise: they could, but slowly and less efficiently than today's birds. In his current study was based on aerodynamic data available before 1950, which led to the flight efficiency pterosauřího greatly overestimated. Is assumed an unrealistic ratio of buoyancy Resistance to (lift-to-drag ratio, L / D) - should not be counted in the airfoil wing bones, which increases resistance. Palmer decided to step in an entirely new: in the wind tunnel scale model pterosaur stčil made from thin slices of epoxy resins, rubber, carbon fiber and tested, how it will change the lift and drag for different wind conditions and cross-bearing bones of the wing.
found that the resistance profile and the maximum lift coefficient is significantly higher than that found earlier study. To flight efficiency as high as in previous studies would have to be the bones of the wings wrapped properly (but at the same light, and thus seems pneumatizovanou) tissue mass, which gave them aerodynamic. Pterosaur wing was also sensitive to thermals, and the animal was probably able to fly in strong winds or turbulent, as opposed to living albatrosses, which are also characterized by greater flight efficiency. According to Palmer's great pterosaurům completely impossible to inhabit wind the type of present-day Northern Europe - instead, they prefer areas with soft tropical breezes and plenty of sunshine to the thermals. Such areas were in the Cretaceous, the largest ever lived azhdarchidi relatively common. According to a new study pterosaurs were flying slowly, but well controlled and its movement to circle the sky and wait for prey for hours, just like they do today, eagles or hawks - in fact, that their living counterparts could also be overcome. Pterosaur likely be able to regulate the curvature profile analogy As they do with the aircraft flaps. Increased curvature generate more lift, but also reduce the speed. As well as slow flight and landing should be - here it does not matter at all for efficiency, the main task is to prevent mechanical damage to the wing. Palmer (2011) argues that his findings are consistent with the anatomy of pterosaurs, the characteristic thin-walled bones. Overall, the author suggests that a far better equivalent for large pterosaurs than albatrosses are frigate birds - these birds Indeed've perfected the art of slow flight over land and sea in heavy use thermals and upward currents.
Servers Scientific American and Discovery News, from which I drew, also interviewed about his views on the Palmer study, one of the largest pterosaurs biomechanics expert Michael Habib, co-author of well-known concept of "take-off from all four. " While Habib argues that the notion of slow flyers is impressive ("Flying Slowly ... Would Be an Addition to Their impressive behavioral Arsenal) and pleasantly scary, but that too much to the author's extreme susceptibility to strong or turbulent winds. According to him, although predictable, that is able to mock what proved living wings, but nevertheless believes that the influence of contraction and relaxation, which was capable of flight membrane was better than expected Palmer. Habib argues that the mere inertia supplied pterosaurům far greater vigor than in the Palmer model, and the membrane allow the animal much more control over the years and also deal with the gusting wind.
* Two terms are often used as synonyms, but in fact they are completely independent of each other. Endothermy (in contrast to ektotermií) indicates that most body heat is generated inside. Homeotermie (= homoiotermie, antonyms is poikilotermie) is the ability to maintain a constant body temperature. Způseb to achieve without homoiotermie endothermy has developed such a large leatherback turtles (Dermochelys coriacea ), the largest living turtle. It gets heat from the environment, due to the large body surface, but it can accumulate so much that her body temperature neprodělává large fluctuations. This mechanism is called and a pan-gigantotermie avianní paleontology is widely discussed in the case sauropodních dinosaurs. Yet another dichotomy of the concepts are tachymetabolický (high metabolism) and bradymetabolický (slow metabolism). Even the most precisely fit the corresponding terms of another pair, but it is not always so. It is true that today birds and mammals are usually tachymetaboličtí, homoiotermičtí endotermové and scaled back as bradymetaboličtí poikilotermní ektotermové, but as altriciální birds are the first 2 weeks after hatching ectothermic (since taken the most heat from the surroundings), and faster metabolism would be difficult while searching. The offspring of rodents such as pay almost the same.
** It seems absurd that a wide range? These are the results of two different regressions. Access to the support material to the original study (Lu et al. 2011) reveals that the higher the result threw method Witton (2008), which also determine the mass kvecalkoatla more decent than 250 kg. Egg weight was determined by the relationship m = K m LB 2, where K m indicates the weight factor related to the density of eggs in birds is also scaled nearly identical (0.548, respectively. 0.547), L egg length in centimeters and the width B.
Sources:
The work of Lu darwinoptera eggs at the beginning of the year (Lu et al. 2011) I will not have returned, but for the fact that a lot of it has published a new Darren Naish on his blog Tetrapoda Zoology. Darren your articles into thematic groups a series of clear-cut, but these are often stretched into a wide range. This was the case here as so often referenced series about the oddity of bird wings (the first two parts in April 2009, Part 3, June 2010). Not surprisingly, the second part of the article published on darwinopterovi to 5 May. This article draws primarily from it, I try but that it was not plagiarism - which is only possible, look to supplement the original study, which (unlike her) freely available.
Pterosaur eggs reconstructed with the assumption that the maximum and minimum preserved dimensions correspond to those real. (A) Darwinopterus , Tiaojishan strata, the turn of the Middle and Upper Jurassic, China, (b) indefinite ornitocheirid, Yixian Formation, Lower Cretaceous, China, (c) vague ornitocheirid, Yixian Formation, Lower Cretaceous, China, (D ) Pterodaustro , Lagarcito Formation, Lower Cretaceous, Argentina. Scale equals 2 cm. (Source: Lu et al. 2011: Supporting Online Material: Figure S2)
D. Naish is a new article focuses on one particular aspect of the eggs found. This is not news, this feature actually shared by all four have found the eggs of pterosaurs. All apparently had a soft, leathery shell, like eggs lepidosaurů (hatérií and "lizard" including snakes), and (some) of turtles. In contrast, archosaurs - the group consisting of birds, crocodiles and many extinct taxa on the phylogeny, I wrote in a recent article - lay eggs with hard, highly mineralized shell. These are the eggs of wild birds, all birds died out, the eggs from which we know ( Oviraptor, Troödon ) neptačích dinosaurs ( Maiasaura ) and living crocodiles. Pterosaurs are arises with the most likely nestled (pun intended) as well. Although historically it was not at all clear consensus, and as Wild (1978) are considered descendants of "eosuchianů" and Benton (1985) for nejbazálnější archosauromorfy, but now there is support for This hypothesis is very strong (Nesbitt [2011] as found for example Pterosauria + Dinosauria same number of unifying features, such as the dinosaurs themselves, and it is somehow well-supported example). But when we in cladograms pterosaurs stands between the two taxa which allow hard-shelled eggs, they would expect such an egg as well.
D. Naish also points out that the split shells of eggs on soft / hard smacks too much simplification. He points out that it is possible (but wasteful) to the common ancestor of crocodiles and birds suffered a leathery egg shells and hard to develop the crocodile and the bird line independently. Both would then have to be present transitional forms that could represent the pterosaurs - in the shell of one of the 4 have found eggs (which pterodaustrova, see Chiappe et al. 2004) found the mineral vrtsvička, but with only 30 microns thick - thinner even than is usual for turtles, whose eggs have been flexible shell (Deeming & Unwin 2007). Naish but states that due to the extremely small sample can not be ruled out that pterosaurs were common in both types of eggs, or that the hard-shell even prevailed, and eventually even the possibility that pterosaurs are archosaurs (we would not be right for them with eggs expect a hard shell).
(By the way - the question arises whether the mere absence of calcified layer prezervace artifact. Deeming & Unwin [2007] show, however, not. Neither of the 3 eggs pterosaurs, which were known at that time, namely signs that the absence of mineral layer caused the post-deposition chemical processes that would have left a shell as dolíčkování. Deeming and Unwin concluded that most pterosaurs eggs resembled squamous living, even though Argentina's eggs pterodaustra could resemble more turtles. Also note that the live Sauropsida such variability in the building shell is not unusual in birds but does not exist.)
(By the way - the question arises whether the mere absence of calcified layer prezervace artifact. Deeming & Unwin [2007] show, however, not. Neither of the 3 eggs pterosaurs, which were known at that time, namely signs that the absence of mineral layer caused the post-deposition chemical processes that would have left a shell as dolíčkování. Deeming and Unwin concluded that most pterosaurs eggs resembled squamous living, even though Argentina's eggs pterodaustra could resemble more turtles. Also note that the live Sauropsida such variability in the building shell is not unusual in birds but does not exist.)
Cladogram of living and fossil reptiles (Sauria ) along with eggs, which tolerate or tolerant (right). From top to bottom: eggs bluebird (Sialia ) Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus ) darwinoptera and long-nosed snake ( Rhynchophis boulengeri ). Birds and crocodiles suffer a hard-shelled eggs with possessing a strong mineral layer, and scaly hatérie Sun We might expect that birds and crocodiles This evolutionary novelty inherited from a common ancestor, which was also the ancestor of the fossil groups listed in cladograms: parasuchianů, ornitosuchidů, skleromochla, marasucha and many others. Pterosaurs - well, some of them - by contrast, laid eggs with soft, leathery shell. This would not be surprising if the cladograms in a position b (eg Bennett 1996) or c (Peters 2000), nearly all phylogenetic studies, however, to cover the position and (eg Nesbitt 2011) So I lay inside the hard skořápkami. (Kladogram z Hone & Benton 2007; obrázky vajec modifikovány - v pořadí odshora dolů - z flickr.com/photos/sagesnow, nigeldennis.com, archosaurmusings.wordpress.com a telegraph.co.uk)
Samotný fakt, že pterosauří vejce jsou jiná, než bychom čekali, nicméně není až tolik zajímavý. Hodí se podotknout, že proti výrokům typu "mají to dva žijící taxony, takže to měly i všechny vymřelé taxony stojící na stromku mezi nimi" (které formalizoval Witmer [1995] method called "Extant Phylogenetic Bracket" or EPB) are beginning to protest - Varicchio (2011) for example showed that in the very near field (the reproductive biology of dinosaurs) may disagree with what really known from the fossil record. Leathery eggs of pterosaurs, but have interesting implications. Above them, the parents probably could not fit - soft, thin and pliable shell could not stand it (Darren in support of this contention cites the work Grellet-Tinner et al. 2007, I would remind the same period one abstract from the symposium Flugsaurier [Deeming & Unwin 2007]). Although D. Naish notes that living Sauropsida type scinků snakes or have found a way to be in physical contact with egg, crushed without him, but he was not fit for pterosaurs. The only way is to keep warm, it is likely to dig into the ground. It would also - provided that the substrate was slightly damp, like decaying vegetation - solve problems with fumes, which are eggs with a soft, permeable shell typical. While the hypothesis
zahrabávaných eggs of pterosaurs is now widely accepted and supported themselves by Lu et al. (2011), there is less certainty about whether the parents guard, and retain the full mercy of fate. Again, we rely on the EPB, which has but one where pterosaurs by incorrect prediction (the hard shell). Recently, moreover, growing evidence that even the dinosaurs - including wild birds, and troodontidy oviraptorosaury who they seem, in all material respects resembled - with fledglings again not so hot (Varicchio 2011). On the question of whether the parents supervising the egg, directly connected to others: the young altriciální pterosaurs, ie. hatched at a relatively early stage of ontogenesis and was dependent on their parents (in birds for the same uses the term "nidikolní"), or was prekociální (nidifugní) and knew how to take care of themselves immediately after hatching? It seems that the truth was far closer to the second possibility (see, eg, Unwin 2005). Pterosaurs we can even be described as "superprekociální, presumably because were able to fly and hunt for food as soon as they got from the egg. D. Naish shows that such a view is quite well-founded by limiting the phylogenetic (EP back in action): the same is true for turtles, scaly, crocodiles and even some birds, especially tabonovitých ( Aves: Neognathae : Galliformes). Naish speculated that pterosaurs could be a typical r-strategists, who are characterized by rapid proliferation, short life cycle, large numbers of offspring and their high mortality. Author notes that without better knowledge of clutch size is just likely estimate, with which they agree and Deeming & Unwin (2007).
much better fossil record than mere eggs have juvenile pterosaurs, who worked at least for some taxa a decent portion of the population. D. Naish here quotes Unwin (2005), under which these young, independent individuals acted as another ecological "species" than their parents - lived in different environments and fed on different food. Not only that. Not even conceivable that during his life could be pterosaur occupy as many as five highly distinct ecological niches. This could explain why we do not know any pterosaurs humming birds, taxa with very small physical dimensions: their niche already occupied by juveniles of larger taxa. (Just out of curiosity: the smallest known specimen of pterosaur, under the taxon Nemicolopterus crypticus , had a margin of around 25 cm and still not fully grown [Wang et al. 2008].) According to the spreader bar, it is likely that dinosaurs neptačí and hurt the birds that were similar. Speculation also said that pterosaurs chicks could be common in a similar way, as it seems to be evidence of dinosaurs.
Naishova second part of the article made me happy: Darren it deals with a topic about which I myself with the original discovery speculated, without knowing that he gave the authors themselves Lu et al. (2011). This is specifically related to the reproductive strategies of endothermy or "Warm-blooded" pterosaurs. While I'm on the path of speculation about how pterosauřím metabolism associated with a low degree of care for young, Lu et al. (2011) and D. Naish pointed out that non-compliance with homeotermickou endothermy * may be the very fact that the eggs were buried and the embryo is developed at ambient temperature. On the other hand, wild birds do the same thing and telling us nothing about how the heat gain and maintain the adults - just how do embryos develop in eggs .*
Naish the article says, he tried to write Science, which published the original study, but that his article was rejected because it attacked the author of only one sentence in which Lü et al. termofyziologii speculated about pterosaurs. His response included a comparison of the pterosaurs superprekociálními birds, namely the aforementioned tabonovitými. At least he wrote a blog that he does not appear that the proportion of female weight (110-220 g) ** and eggs, in which it was found (about 6 grams), rather nearer pterosaurs than for squamous living birds. First, water seepage through the porous shell leathery egg weight increased as well as still 5 grams (thus the problem disappeared), both values \u200b\u200bcharacteristic scaly found also in some birds (as the graph of Lu et al. 2011, which I stole from Tetrapoda Zoology and reprinted below this paragraph):
ratio between female weight (x axis) and the initial mass of eggs, a mass before the eggs infiltrated water (y axis). Are marked with blue birds, green turtles, purple and brown scaly crocodiles; relevant groups are also fitted regression line. Darwinopterus is marked in black, red Pterodaustro. (Source: scienceblogs.com / tetrapodzoology)
In other studies, the title promises (I will just have to learn how to do it properly is great ...), Palmer (2011 ) and refers to this time purely biomechanics. If the past two years were the signs of war about whether pterosaurs with the largest wingspan of over 10 meters could still fly (Sato et al. 2009, Henderson 2010, Witton & Habib 2010; see the blog here and here) now comes with a Palmer Finally some sort of compromise: they could, but slowly and less efficiently than today's birds. In his current study was based on aerodynamic data available before 1950, which led to the flight efficiency pterosauřího greatly overestimated. Is assumed an unrealistic ratio of buoyancy Resistance to (lift-to-drag ratio, L / D) - should not be counted in the airfoil wing bones, which increases resistance. Palmer decided to step in an entirely new: in the wind tunnel scale model pterosaur stčil made from thin slices of epoxy resins, rubber, carbon fiber and tested, how it will change the lift and drag for different wind conditions and cross-bearing bones of the wing.
found that the resistance profile and the maximum lift coefficient is significantly higher than that found earlier study. To flight efficiency as high as in previous studies would have to be the bones of the wings wrapped properly (but at the same light, and thus seems pneumatizovanou) tissue mass, which gave them aerodynamic. Pterosaur wing was also sensitive to thermals, and the animal was probably able to fly in strong winds or turbulent, as opposed to living albatrosses, which are also characterized by greater flight efficiency. According to Palmer's great pterosaurům completely impossible to inhabit wind the type of present-day Northern Europe - instead, they prefer areas with soft tropical breezes and plenty of sunshine to the thermals. Such areas were in the Cretaceous, the largest ever lived azhdarchidi relatively common. According to a new study pterosaurs were flying slowly, but well controlled and its movement to circle the sky and wait for prey for hours, just like they do today, eagles or hawks - in fact, that their living counterparts could also be overcome. Pterosaur likely be able to regulate the curvature profile analogy As they do with the aircraft flaps. Increased curvature generate more lift, but also reduce the speed. As well as slow flight and landing should be - here it does not matter at all for efficiency, the main task is to prevent mechanical damage to the wing. Palmer (2011) argues that his findings are consistent with the anatomy of pterosaurs, the characteristic thin-walled bones. Overall, the author suggests that a far better equivalent for large pterosaurs than albatrosses are frigate birds - these birds Indeed've perfected the art of slow flight over land and sea in heavy use thermals and upward currents.
Servers Scientific American and Discovery News, from which I drew, also interviewed about his views on the Palmer study, one of the largest pterosaurs biomechanics expert Michael Habib, co-author of well-known concept of "take-off from all four. " While Habib argues that the notion of slow flyers is impressive ("Flying Slowly ... Would Be an Addition to Their impressive behavioral Arsenal) and pleasantly scary, but that too much to the author's extreme susceptibility to strong or turbulent winds. According to him, although predictable, that is able to mock what proved living wings, but nevertheless believes that the influence of contraction and relaxation, which was capable of flight membrane was better than expected Palmer. Habib argues that the mere inertia supplied pterosaurům far greater vigor than in the Palmer model, and the membrane allow the animal much more control over the years and also deal with the gusting wind.
* Two terms are often used as synonyms, but in fact they are completely independent of each other. Endothermy (in contrast to ektotermií) indicates that most body heat is generated inside. Homeotermie (= homoiotermie, antonyms is poikilotermie) is the ability to maintain a constant body temperature. Způseb to achieve without homoiotermie endothermy has developed such a large leatherback turtles (Dermochelys coriacea ), the largest living turtle. It gets heat from the environment, due to the large body surface, but it can accumulate so much that her body temperature neprodělává large fluctuations. This mechanism is called and a pan-gigantotermie avianní paleontology is widely discussed in the case sauropodních dinosaurs. Yet another dichotomy of the concepts are tachymetabolický (high metabolism) and bradymetabolický (slow metabolism). Even the most precisely fit the corresponding terms of another pair, but it is not always so. It is true that today birds and mammals are usually tachymetaboličtí, homoiotermičtí endotermové and scaled back as bradymetaboličtí poikilotermní ektotermové, but as altriciální birds are the first 2 weeks after hatching ectothermic (since taken the most heat from the surroundings), and faster metabolism would be difficult while searching. The offspring of rodents such as pay almost the same.
** It seems absurd that a wide range? These are the results of two different regressions. Access to the support material to the original study (Lu et al. 2011) reveals that the higher the result threw method Witton (2008), which also determine the mass kvecalkoatla more decent than 250 kg. Egg weight was determined by the relationship m = K m LB 2, where K m indicates the weight factor related to the density of eggs in birds is also scaled nearly identical (0.548, respectively. 0.547), L egg length in centimeters and the width B.
Sources:
- http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=wind-tunnel-tests-reveal-pterosaurs
- http://news.discovery.com/dinosaurs/pterosaur-dinosaur-flight.html
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- Lü J-C, Unwin DM, Deeming DC, Jin X, Liu Y-Q, Ji Q 2011 An egg-adult association, gender, and reproduction in pterosaurs. Science 331(6015): 321–4
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- Unwin DM 2005 The Pterosaurs: From Deep Time . New York: Pi Press
- Varricchio DJ 2011 A distinct dinosaur life history? Hist Biol 23: 91-107
- Wang XL, Kellner AWA, Zhou Z, Campos DA 2008 Discovery of a rare arboreal forest-dwelling flying reptile (Pterosauria, Pterodactyloidea) from China. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 106 (6): 1983-7
- Wild R 1978 The pterosaur (Reptilia, Pterosauria) from the Upper Triassic of Cene near Bergamo, Italy. Boll Soc Paleont Ital 17: 176-256
- Witmer LM 1995 The extant phylogenetic bracket and the importance of reconstructing soft tissues in fossils.19-33 in Thomason JJ, ed, Functional morphology in vertebrate paleontology . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
- Witton MP 2008 A new approach Determining the pterosaur body mass and Its Implications for pterosaur flight. Zitteliana B28: 143-58
- Witton MP, Habib MB 2010 On the size and diversity of flight of giant pterosaurs, the use of bird and pterosaur analogues and comments on pterosaur flightlessness. PLoS ONE 5 (11): e13982
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