One of my "Pet Peeves" * is an often repeated claim that of all living birds have only hoacin Crested ( Opithocomus hoatzin ) claws on the wings. In the minds of people who repeat this claim, for some mysterious reason, a single bird of the Amazon still retains pleziomorfii archeopterygových of times. Already on it would be something strange: hoacinova Although the phylogenetic position is extremely problematic (nuts has proven to be both Sibleyho and Ahlquist, so and advanced molecular analysis with giant dies), but while no one disputes that it is a deeply vhnízděný taxon among modern birds ( Neornithes).
Wetmore (1920) further explored the 12 "groups" rorýsovitých (Apodidae, then "Micropodidae) and only one of them were missing claws - for Swiftlets (Collocalia ). Intrigued him is that Jeffries scored rorýsovitých claw at the Old World, while in Peru ostnitého Common Swift (Chaetura pelagic ) was missing. Wetmore did not confirm this observation, however, revealed quite an interesting fact - that the relatives klechovitých (Hemiprocnidae) has no representative wing claws. With a thorough analysis of the presence of claws came Heilmann (1926) in his famous book The Origin of Birds . It is indeed notorious that, fifty years after its Publication halted debate on the origins of birds, in many ways, it is nonetheless an admirable work. Heilmann was probably one of the first who remarked that the claws on the wings of birds are among the living completely normal thing. The young ducks, geese, hawk, Tern, Pied Avocet, ouhorlíků, godwit and claws lysek recorded as the first (alulárním, embryological II.) And the second (large, embryological III.) Fingers, but often only the first. Adult birds with claws on its fingers in its alulárním Policy Covers geese, ducks, swans, vultures, hawks, eagles and even some singers (Passeriformes). Occasional large claws on its fingers Heilmann (1926) also reported from all runners - ostrich, rhea, emu, and kiviho casuar.
most detailed analysis of the issue apparently carried out by Fisher (1940), from whose work I took over most of the above citations. Fisher based his analysis on a total of 2004 (!) Of bird skins and bodies loaded with alcohol, representing various ontogenetic stages 227 "groups". (As David said Marjanovic, who knows how many "families" would be made today - historically avian systematics clearly sought to "splitterství", ie fragmentation.) Claws on alulárním and / or large fingers scored a total of 51 "families" and 225 "species". Taxa claws possession, presented in tabular form, which also refers to the age of the specimens. The alulárním finger nails were normal for the red (Gaviiformes), storks (Ciconiiformes), anseriformes (Anseriformes), digging (Galliformes), predators ("Falconiformes", perhaps the Accipitriformes and Falconidae), "krátkokřídlých (" Gruiformes "- without a complete study of Fisher's hard to say which taxa that have been around ...), dlouhokřídlých (Charadriiformes) and owls (Strigiformes). Not always, of course, claw possess all investigated representatives of the group. Claw on the big toe was much rarer: the regular presence of Fisher (1940) recorded only for pups and anseriformes hoacina all ontogenetic stages, while at least occasionally appeared (in accordance with Heilmannovými data) as well as other forms. Nails were never found in grebes (Podicipedidae) měkkozobých (Columbiformes), Trogon (Trogonidae) srostloprstých (Coraciiformes), woodpeckers (Piciformes), klechovitých (Hemiprocnidae) or, finally, in any of 241 specimens of 68 "groups" of singers.
are also important conclusions to which Fisher arrived. Above all, the author clearly worded something studies suggest bird claws for decades: that their presence does not taxonomic significance. (This is of course a general rule, not the whole truth. Wetmore [1920] for example has argued that with the discovery of the claws of Common Swift ostnitého gone further argument for the allocation rorýsovitých "měkkoocasé [Apodinae] and ostnoocasé [Chaeturinae] - and he was right, so apparently fundamental dichotomy rorýsovitých actually looks.) Fisher, however, also dealt with other aspects of claws: showed that more and are better developed in juveniles than adults (although from this rule are likely to exceptions - Wetmore [1920] as the Common Swift scored his nails until the very late stage of ontogeny) and that may or may not be present even in different individuals of the same "kind".
Darren Naish the first of the above-mentioned series of articles about bird Kyje, spikes, thorns and claws divorced at the claws of birds which occasionally occur in large (embryological III.) Finger: In addition to the customary hoacina, Fisher mentioned anseriformes and Heilmann Revert mentioned as well as flamingos (Phoenicopteridae).
quite interesting is the story of Talon kasuářího: Stettenheim (2000) stated that these flightless birds are the big finger and a large curved claw, which is used as a weapon. D. Naish this fact commented on the fact that no other source did not mention this fact and then added that it is probably a confused reference to the Talon II. finger leg, which actually serves as a weapon. This seems quite unlikely (if one thinks about it, it's hard to imagine casuar to attack with its claws on the wing, compared to pop-up images of birds into the air feet first are well known ), so in the article where I have this Stettenheimovo repeated assertions, I implement corrective editing. On the other hand, the fact remains that kasuárově big toe claw is actually located. Illustrates the necessary illustrations Parker (1888), that I have a blog přetisknul once (and again can be seen below this paragraph). Claw on the wing are also the closest living relatives cassowaries, emuové, and again the finger III (Fisher, 1940; Scott, 1996). Emuům however, no other finger was left, so it would be elsewhere or not.
The nejironičtější fact, however, just beginning - the previously mentioned article by D. Naish one commentator pointed out that the nails must have noticed by anyone who has ever looked at a little more carefully on baked chicken wing. This was confirmed by Matt Taylor and the same fact was also mentioned several times the Dinosaur Mailing List . While most articles and books force us to look at the wing claws, exotic Amazonian endemic, it is in fact even the most common bird, what can not imagine with what we encounter almost every day - Gallus gallus f. domestica , or chicken.
have so far that should therefore be clear that the alulárním finger nails are not uncommon at all - on the contrary, it is a fairly common character that is (by D. Naish) only "now and then selectively lost. Claw on the big toe is much rarer in its phylogenetic distribution, but we can determine that this is again a sign of inherited vided Neornithes - usually because the Revert and young ducks, geese, or the representatives of two groups of modern birds nejbazálnějších ( Palaeognathae and Galloanserae , respectively). According to the spreader bar is a loss of wing claws characteristic especially for the so-called "higher land birds" (Higher landbirds). The composition of the wonders in some analysis (eg, Johansson et al. 2001) actually coincides nicely with the birds, whose claws Fisher noticed: they include several singers and their relative strengths, including leskovcovitých and relatives (Galbulae), woodpeckers and relatives (green), owls (Strigiformes), svišťounů (Apodiformes), Trogon (Trogonidae) srostloprstých (Coraciiformes), and perhaps even kukačkovitých (Cuculidae). Fisher's conclusions on the absence of wing claws in passerine birds Nonetheless, he was the revision when Baumel (1953) reported the presence of adult female křidélkách hispaniolské crows (Corvus leucognaphalus ). Claws are curved and relatively well developed, with a length of 3.2 mm to 6.2 mm and left on the right flank. This study was interesting in several respects. Although such D. Naish says that unlike mezozoických neptačích birds and theropods have wing claws of modern birds bone support, Baumel (1953) explicitly mentions "unguální falanx" (= last finger part forming the basis of bone claws), and even admits that the "cured" specimens were present just such a bony core, while the horn sheath absent. Of course can not exclude the erroneous interpretation of that department, although the question of what then was, if not the claw - certainly not on the spur, you grow up in other places. A recent study (Wiley 2006) in any event, citing evidence Baumelův without skepticism.
hoacin So if not the only bird that has talons for fingers, wings, can be at least one bird, which is something up? Stettenheim (2000) as a bird list of groups whose claws are present, in the same breath adds that the vast majority of birds is just not functional, rudimentary services. A well-known than it is that young hoacinů use their claws to climb trees and birds as adults is to lose. (A less known fact is that some hoacinům nails grow again in adulthood. Strahl [1988] found that of 24 adults surveyed between 1982 and 1985 possessed claws 8 subjects, so maybe it is not a rare phenomenon in any way. Hoacinové Even adults who claw have, it has But do not use: on that climbed the trees are too heavy.) Youth hoacinové neornity however not the only who their heritage theropod actively used. Stettenheimovo allegations of cassowaries is likely to be ignored (see above), but it still remains one other good candidate: turakové (Musophagidae). The young winger's claw used in exactly the same way as young hoacina (as mentioned here or here). There were also speculations some forusracidi had hypertrophied claws and use them for hunting (see earlier article on titanisovi ), but they were based on misinterpretation of the ball joint to karpometakarpu (Chandler 1994).
All this does not mean that hoacin no sign that it would (apparently) linked with Mesozoic birds and neptačími modern birds rather than dinosaurs - he has it, just nothing to do with nails. Hoacin Crested is the only bird that is hatched with nesrostlým karpometakarpem. Karpometakarpus - inaccurately called the metacarpus - consists only of the metacarpal bones were metakarpálů, as well as distal (distant body) carpal bones. Grow into one of these elements, although initially incomplete, the evolution of the bird appeared relatively soon - already at konfuciusornitidů. That is why it is almost impossible to represent the actual ontogeny hoacinova original state pleziomorfii. There is a total of doubt that the last common ancestor of all living birds (Neornithes ) hatched with fully Fused karpometakarpem and that hoacinův return to the "archaic" state is actually a highly derivative character, autapomorfií. After about 10 weeks after hatching hoacinovi metakarpály fused together into a single bone, as is the case with other birds already happening in the embryonic stage.
Unfortunately, this feature - and, of course, well-developed claws - caused that paleornitologických studies is hoacin with regularity, the only bird that appears next to or archeopteryga neptačích dinosaurs (Livezey & Zusi 2007). He began with the apparently Parker (1891), which even hoacina explicitly described as "reptilian bird" (Reptilian bird), but it still continued in Feduccia et al. (2005). This trend, unfortunately, encourages the belief - and if not intentionally, then this interpretation can not blame anyone - that is hoacin with the early birds and their "crawl" ancestors some exclusive relationship that him with any other shared living bird. Some ancient authors have suggested such a possibility quite openly: by Headleyho (1895) is hoacin "living fossils" from the time before the birds reached the "greater [his degree] organization." This is dead wrong - as well as explaining Dawkins (1982), the birds can not build a ladder, where taxa were standing below, closer relatives 'reptiles' Taxa than standing up. Evolution of the trees are not ladders. Kdybychom se od libovolného žijícího ptáka vydali po evoluční trajektorii zpátky, nutně bychom se dostali daleko dříve ke společnému ptačímu předkovi než k archeopterygovi nebo libovolnému "plazovi".
Přesto nás takové představy strašily do nedávné minulosti: Livezey & Zusi (2007) upozornili na to, že iluzorní výjimečnost hoacinových drápů vedla několik autorů (Feduccia 1980; Olson 1985) k výrokům, že tento taxon pochází z "kořenů" Neornithes . (Podobné mlžení, from which not even the greatest effort could not squeeze a clear phylogenetic hypothesis, it is typical for these authors). Today, such views are (hopefully) do not occur, but still appear in every popular-educational article. Hoacin been described only in poetic terms, reportedly has "long ago" or "prehistoric". Really? Sure, the bird is not exactly a neighborhood, but if the reader that the article not met with a "unique" claw (which is actually any chicken) someone thought it would be difficult to use such an epithet. All the more pity that this nonsense occurs even when using high-quality resources (eg BirdLife International 2007), which is why it is necessary to refute.
* Well, yesterday I listened to a lecture where slajdovalo ruler and has been for us čelindžkou to something nemisnuli.
Sources:
Hoacin crested - the sole owner of the claws on the wings of the living dinosaurs? Nope ... (Source: photos.travelblog.org)
In fact, the claws on the wings of birds actually very widespread and quite normal. And yes, here I mean really nails - horny sheaths on the finger tips of recent articles. Lots of birds, other than it has in the wings as well as other barbs, but whose origins are exotic and - unlike "real" nails, which are the real legacy of theropod dinosaurs - a structure derived, not primitive. These "spurs" (Spurs) wrote Darren Naish series of articles (here , here and here ) in connection with xenicibisem appeared on this blog. Most of the keratin-coated projections pastern bone or carpal bones (Rand 1954). Just two such spurs as the Caja-cheeked ( Chaun chavaria - kamišovití, Swans, Geese), on a large alulárním metakarpálu. List of taxa for which there are real claws, for example, offers Stettenheim (2000) and the blog I quoted him several times. I soon also found that, particularly in the older literature was relatively frequent occurrence of the clutches of the topic. The very first work (say, from the 1st half of the 19th century), although not distinguish between actual záprstními claws and spurs, he Jeffries (1881), but eliminate this and showed that the right claws are relatively widespread. Interestingly, due to the use of vernacular names was not easy to decipher later authors, in which the bird's claws actually Jeffries found. In his footsteps however, continued as PL Sclater (yes, the one which was named after cassowaries Sclaterův ), who reported the presence of claws havranovitého vulture (Coragyps [then Cathartes ] atratus) and also from tea ( Chaun ), which combines the excitement of the (primitive) with spurs, claws (Sclater 1886). Wetmore (1920) further explored the 12 "groups" rorýsovitých (Apodidae, then "Micropodidae) and only one of them were missing claws - for Swiftlets (Collocalia ). Intrigued him is that Jeffries scored rorýsovitých claw at the Old World, while in Peru ostnitého Common Swift (Chaetura pelagic ) was missing. Wetmore did not confirm this observation, however, revealed quite an interesting fact - that the relatives klechovitých (Hemiprocnidae) has no representative wing claws. With a thorough analysis of the presence of claws came Heilmann (1926) in his famous book The Origin of Birds . It is indeed notorious that, fifty years after its Publication halted debate on the origins of birds, in many ways, it is nonetheless an admirable work. Heilmann was probably one of the first who remarked that the claws on the wings of birds are among the living completely normal thing. The young ducks, geese, hawk, Tern, Pied Avocet, ouhorlíků, godwit and claws lysek recorded as the first (alulárním, embryological II.) And the second (large, embryological III.) Fingers, but often only the first. Adult birds with claws on its fingers in its alulárním Policy Covers geese, ducks, swans, vultures, hawks, eagles and even some singers (Passeriformes). Occasional large claws on its fingers Heilmann (1926) also reported from all runners - ostrich, rhea, emu, and kiviho casuar.
most detailed analysis of the issue apparently carried out by Fisher (1940), from whose work I took over most of the above citations. Fisher based his analysis on a total of 2004 (!) Of bird skins and bodies loaded with alcohol, representing various ontogenetic stages 227 "groups". (As David said Marjanovic, who knows how many "families" would be made today - historically avian systematics clearly sought to "splitterství", ie fragmentation.) Claws on alulárním and / or large fingers scored a total of 51 "families" and 225 "species". Taxa claws possession, presented in tabular form, which also refers to the age of the specimens. The alulárním finger nails were normal for the red (Gaviiformes), storks (Ciconiiformes), anseriformes (Anseriformes), digging (Galliformes), predators ("Falconiformes", perhaps the Accipitriformes and Falconidae), "krátkokřídlých (" Gruiformes "- without a complete study of Fisher's hard to say which taxa that have been around ...), dlouhokřídlých (Charadriiformes) and owls (Strigiformes). Not always, of course, claw possess all investigated representatives of the group. Claw on the big toe was much rarer: the regular presence of Fisher (1940) recorded only for pups and anseriformes hoacina all ontogenetic stages, while at least occasionally appeared (in accordance with Heilmannovými data) as well as other forms. Nails were never found in grebes (Podicipedidae) měkkozobých (Columbiformes), Trogon (Trogonidae) srostloprstých (Coraciiformes), woodpeckers (Piciformes), klechovitých (Hemiprocnidae) or, finally, in any of 241 specimens of 68 "groups" of singers.
are also important conclusions to which Fisher arrived. Above all, the author clearly worded something studies suggest bird claws for decades: that their presence does not taxonomic significance. (This is of course a general rule, not the whole truth. Wetmore [1920] for example has argued that with the discovery of the claws of Common Swift ostnitého gone further argument for the allocation rorýsovitých "měkkoocasé [Apodinae] and ostnoocasé [Chaeturinae] - and he was right, so apparently fundamental dichotomy rorýsovitých actually looks.) Fisher, however, also dealt with other aspects of claws: showed that more and are better developed in juveniles than adults (although from this rule are likely to exceptions - Wetmore [1920] as the Common Swift scored his nails until the very late stage of ontogeny) and that may or may not be present even in different individuals of the same "kind".
Darren Naish the first of the above-mentioned series of articles about bird Kyje, spikes, thorns and claws divorced at the claws of birds which occasionally occur in large (embryological III.) Finger: In addition to the customary hoacina, Fisher mentioned anseriformes and Heilmann Revert mentioned as well as flamingos (Phoenicopteridae).
quite interesting is the story of Talon kasuářího: Stettenheim (2000) stated that these flightless birds are the big finger and a large curved claw, which is used as a weapon. D. Naish this fact commented on the fact that no other source did not mention this fact and then added that it is probably a confused reference to the Talon II. finger leg, which actually serves as a weapon. This seems quite unlikely (if one thinks about it, it's hard to imagine casuar to attack with its claws on the wing, compared to pop-up images of birds into the air feet first are well known ), so in the article where I have this Stettenheimovo repeated assertions, I implement corrective editing. On the other hand, the fact remains that kasuárově big toe claw is actually located. Illustrates the necessary illustrations Parker (1888), that I have a blog přetisknul once (and again can be seen below this paragraph). Claw on the wing are also the closest living relatives cassowaries, emuové, and again the finger III (Fisher, 1940; Scott, 1996). Emuům however, no other finger was left, so it would be elsewhere or not.
cassowaries claw on the big toe - though apparently not used as a weapon ( Contra Stettenheim 2000), probably more than well. This illustration comes from Parker's study, dealing by the presence of claws on the wings of runners (Parker 1888). (Source: wikimedia.org)
the Talon III. (And only) finger emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae ). The image is part of a series of photographs , more or less complete dissection of the bird's capture led by Matt Wedel, known to participate in the blog SV-POW. (Source: drvector.blogspot.com)
The nejironičtější fact, however, just beginning - the previously mentioned article by D. Naish one commentator pointed out that the nails must have noticed by anyone who has ever looked at a little more carefully on baked chicken wing. This was confirmed by Matt Taylor and the same fact was also mentioned several times the Dinosaur Mailing List . While most articles and books force us to look at the wing claws, exotic Amazonian endemic, it is in fact even the most common bird, what can not imagine with what we encounter almost every day - Gallus gallus f. domestica , or chicken.
have so far that should therefore be clear that the alulárním finger nails are not uncommon at all - on the contrary, it is a fairly common character that is (by D. Naish) only "now and then selectively lost. Claw on the big toe is much rarer in its phylogenetic distribution, but we can determine that this is again a sign of inherited vided Neornithes - usually because the Revert and young ducks, geese, or the representatives of two groups of modern birds nejbazálnějších ( Palaeognathae and Galloanserae , respectively). According to the spreader bar is a loss of wing claws characteristic especially for the so-called "higher land birds" (Higher landbirds). The composition of the wonders in some analysis (eg, Johansson et al. 2001) actually coincides nicely with the birds, whose claws Fisher noticed: they include several singers and their relative strengths, including leskovcovitých and relatives (Galbulae), woodpeckers and relatives (green), owls (Strigiformes), svišťounů (Apodiformes), Trogon (Trogonidae) srostloprstých (Coraciiformes), and perhaps even kukačkovitých (Cuculidae). Fisher's conclusions on the absence of wing claws in passerine birds Nonetheless, he was the revision when Baumel (1953) reported the presence of adult female křidélkách hispaniolské crows (Corvus leucognaphalus ). Claws are curved and relatively well developed, with a length of 3.2 mm to 6.2 mm and left on the right flank. This study was interesting in several respects. Although such D. Naish says that unlike mezozoických neptačích birds and theropods have wing claws of modern birds bone support, Baumel (1953) explicitly mentions "unguální falanx" (= last finger part forming the basis of bone claws), and even admits that the "cured" specimens were present just such a bony core, while the horn sheath absent. Of course can not exclude the erroneous interpretation of that department, although the question of what then was, if not the claw - certainly not on the spur, you grow up in other places. A recent study (Wiley 2006) in any event, citing evidence Baumelův without skepticism.
hoacin So if not the only bird that has talons for fingers, wings, can be at least one bird, which is something up? Stettenheim (2000) as a bird list of groups whose claws are present, in the same breath adds that the vast majority of birds is just not functional, rudimentary services. A well-known than it is that young hoacinů use their claws to climb trees and birds as adults is to lose. (A less known fact is that some hoacinům nails grow again in adulthood. Strahl [1988] found that of 24 adults surveyed between 1982 and 1985 possessed claws 8 subjects, so maybe it is not a rare phenomenon in any way. Hoacinové Even adults who claw have, it has But do not use: on that climbed the trees are too heavy.) Youth hoacinové neornity however not the only who their heritage theropod actively used. Stettenheimovo allegations of cassowaries is likely to be ignored (see above), but it still remains one other good candidate: turakové (Musophagidae). The young winger's claw used in exactly the same way as young hoacina (as mentioned here or here). There were also speculations some forusracidi had hypertrophied claws and use them for hunting (see earlier article on titanisovi ), but they were based on misinterpretation of the ball joint to karpometakarpu (Chandler 1994).
hands (or wings, if you want) the two-Recent ostrich (Struthio camelus , left) and svrchnojurského taxon lithographica Archaeopteryx (right). The nails are of course evident in both of them. (Modified from Abel 1911: Fig 4 and Fig 5)
claws on the hands of different influenza as Fisher (1940). (A) Pagophila - Gull (B) Cygnus - the Swan, (C) Rallus - crake, (D) Lophortyx - Křepela (E) Cathartes - Condor, (F) Archaeopteryx . (Source: scienceblogs.com / tetrapodzoology)
All this does not mean that hoacin no sign that it would (apparently) linked with Mesozoic birds and neptačími modern birds rather than dinosaurs - he has it, just nothing to do with nails. Hoacin Crested is the only bird that is hatched with nesrostlým karpometakarpem. Karpometakarpus - inaccurately called the metacarpus - consists only of the metacarpal bones were metakarpálů, as well as distal (distant body) carpal bones. Grow into one of these elements, although initially incomplete, the evolution of the bird appeared relatively soon - already at konfuciusornitidů. That is why it is almost impossible to represent the actual ontogeny hoacinova original state pleziomorfii. There is a total of doubt that the last common ancestor of all living birds (Neornithes ) hatched with fully Fused karpometakarpem and that hoacinův return to the "archaic" state is actually a highly derivative character, autapomorfií. After about 10 weeks after hatching hoacinovi metakarpály fused together into a single bone, as is the case with other birds already happening in the embryonic stage.
Unfortunately, this feature - and, of course, well-developed claws - caused that paleornitologických studies is hoacin with regularity, the only bird that appears next to or archeopteryga neptačích dinosaurs (Livezey & Zusi 2007). He began with the apparently Parker (1891), which even hoacina explicitly described as "reptilian bird" (Reptilian bird), but it still continued in Feduccia et al. (2005). This trend, unfortunately, encourages the belief - and if not intentionally, then this interpretation can not blame anyone - that is hoacin with the early birds and their "crawl" ancestors some exclusive relationship that him with any other shared living bird. Some ancient authors have suggested such a possibility quite openly: by Headleyho (1895) is hoacin "living fossils" from the time before the birds reached the "greater [his degree] organization." This is dead wrong - as well as explaining Dawkins (1982), the birds can not build a ladder, where taxa were standing below, closer relatives 'reptiles' Taxa than standing up. Evolution of the trees are not ladders. Kdybychom se od libovolného žijícího ptáka vydali po evoluční trajektorii zpátky, nutně bychom se dostali daleko dříve ke společnému ptačímu předkovi než k archeopterygovi nebo libovolnému "plazovi".
Přesto nás takové představy strašily do nedávné minulosti: Livezey & Zusi (2007) upozornili na to, že iluzorní výjimečnost hoacinových drápů vedla několik autorů (Feduccia 1980; Olson 1985) k výrokům, že tento taxon pochází z "kořenů" Neornithes . (Podobné mlžení, from which not even the greatest effort could not squeeze a clear phylogenetic hypothesis, it is typical for these authors). Today, such views are (hopefully) do not occur, but still appear in every popular-educational article. Hoacin been described only in poetic terms, reportedly has "long ago" or "prehistoric". Really? Sure, the bird is not exactly a neighborhood, but if the reader that the article not met with a "unique" claw (which is actually any chicken) someone thought it would be difficult to use such an epithet. All the more pity that this nonsense occurs even when using high-quality resources (eg BirdLife International 2007), which is why it is necessary to refute.
* Well, yesterday I listened to a lecture where slajdovalo ruler and has been for us čelindžkou to something nemisnuli.
Sources:
- http://dml.cmnh.org/1998Jul/msg01020.html
- http://scienceblogs.com/tetrapodzoology/2010/06/clubs_spurs_spikes_and_claws.php
- http://scienceblogs.com/tetrapodzoology/2009/04/dissecting_an_emu...comment ...
- http://scienceblogs.com/tetrapodzoology/2009/04/dissecting_an_emu...comment-1 ...
- http://dml.cmnh.org/2004Apr/msg00072.html
- http://www.stlzoo.org/animals/abouttheanimals/birds/turacos...whitecrestedturaco.htm
- http://www.honoluluzoo.org/turaco.htm
- Abel O 1911 The ancestors of birds and their habits. Ratio kk zool-bot Ges Wien 61 (7 / 8): 144-91
- Baumel JJ 1953 Wing claws in the White-necked Crow (Corvus leucognaphalus ). Auk 70 (3): 373
- BirdLife International 2007 [2008] [ Birds: Visual encyclopedia of birds around the world .] Prague: Euromedia Group [transl. would Kholová H]
- Chandler RM 1994 The Wing of Titanis walleri (Aves: Phorusrhacidae) from the Late Blancan of Florida. Bull Fla Mus Nat Hist 36: 175-80
- Dawkins R 1982 [2002] [ Blind Watchmaker: The miracle of life through the eyes of evolutionary biology .] Prague: Paseka [transl. the Grim T]
- Feduccia and 1980 The Age of Birds . Cambridge: Harvard Univ Press
- Feduccia A, Lingham-Soliar T, Hinchliffe JR 2005 Do feathered dinosaurs exist? Testing the hypothesis on neontological and paleontological evidence. J Morphol 266: 125–66
- Fisher HI 1940 The occurrence of vestigial claws on the wings of birds. Amer Midl Nat 23: 234–43
- Headley FW 1895 The Structure and Life of Birds. London: Macmillan. 412 p
- Heilmann G 1926 On the origin of birds . London: Witherby. 209 p
- Jeffries JA 1881 On the claws and spurs on birds’ wings. Proc Boston Soc Nat Hist 21: 301–6
- Johansson US, Parsons TJ, Irestedt M, Ericson PGP 2001 Clades within the `higher land birds', evaluated by nuclear DNA sequences. J Zool Syst Evol Res 39: 37–51
- Livezey BC, Zusi RL 2007 Higher-order phylogeny of modern birds (Theropoda, Aves: Neornithes) based on comparative anatomy: II. – Analysis and discussion. Zool J Linn Soc 149(1): 1–95
- Olson SL 1985 The fossil record of birds . 79–238 in Farner DS, King JR, Parkes KC, eds, Avian biology, Vol. 8 . New York: Acad Press
- Parker WK 1888 On the presence of claws in the wings of the Ratitæ. Ibis 30(1): 124–8
- Parker WK 1891 On the morphology of a reptilian bird, Opisthocomus cristatus . Transact Zool Soc Lond 13: 43–85
- Rand AL 1954 On the spurs on birds' wings. Wilson Bull 66: 127–34
- Sclater PL 1886 On the claws and spurs of birds. Ibis 28: 147–51
- Scott TA 1996 Concise encyclopedia biology . Berlin, DE: Walter de Gruyter
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